| Check | Value | Allowed range | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Static camber | -1.50 deg | -2.50 .. -1.00 | PASS |
| Camber gain | 0.441 deg/in | 0.35 .. 0.70 | PASS |
| Caster | 5.44 deg | 4.00 .. 7.00 | PASS |
| KPI | 4.90 deg | 3.00 .. 8.00 | PASS |
| Scrub radius | 18.4 mm | 5.00 .. 25.00 | PASS |
| Mechanical trail | 17.9 mm | 10.00 .. 30.00 | PASS |
| Static toe (+ = in) | 0.000 deg | -0.20 .. 0.00 | PASS |
| Roll center height | 34.9 mm | 25.00 .. 60.00 | PASS |
| Anti-dive | 8.0 % | 5.00 .. 20.00 | PASS |
| Ackermann | 18 % | 10.00 .. 40.00 | PASS |
| Bump steer (+ = in) | 0.000 deg/in | -0.03 .. 0.03 | PASS |
| Max |toe change| | 0.000 deg | .. 0.05 | PASS |
| Joint misalignment margin | 4.0 deg | 0.00 .. | PASS |
| Ride frequency | 3.50 Hz | 3.00 .. 4.00 | PASS |
| Damper stroke left | 9.0 mm | 0.00 .. | PASS |
| Damper room to full extension (droop) | 4.8 mm | 2.00 .. | PASS |
| Damper room to full compression (bump) | 4.2 mm | 2.00 .. | PASS |
| Worst rocker transmission angle | 72 deg | 45.00 .. | PASS |
| Damping ratio, bump low-speed | 0.55 | 0.40 .. 0.90 | PASS |
| Damping ratio, rebound low-speed | 0.82 | 0.50 .. 1.20 | PASS |
| Roll center lateral shift | -0.2 mm/deg | -20.00 .. 20.00 | PASS |
| Link clearance (damper - other side's damper) | 61.0 mm | >= 60.0 | PASS |
| Rim radial margin | 31.7 mm | >= 5.0 | PASS |
Ranges come from the team table (edit targets in the config). Bump-steer, ride-frequency and clearance limits are suggestions.
Body roll with equal and opposite wheel travel. Camber relative to the ground. Roll camber 0.815 deg/deg (1.0 = wheel leans with the body). Roll center moves -0.2 mm sideways per degree.
| Roll (°) | Outer camber | Inner camber | Outer toe | RC height | RC lateral |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0.0 | -1.50 | -1.50 | 0.000 | 34.9 | 0.0 |
| 0.5 | -1.10 | -1.91 | -0.000 | 34.9 | -0.1 |
| 1.0 | -0.70 | -2.33 | -0.000 | 34.9 | -0.2 |
| 1.5 | -0.32 | -2.76 | -0.000 | 35.0 | -0.1 |
| 2.0 | 0.06 | -3.20 | -0.000 | 35.0 | -0.0 |
| Rack (mm) | Inner (°) | Outer (°) | Ackermann (%) | Inner camber | Outer camber |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0.0 | -0.00 | 0.00 | - | -1.50 | -1.50 |
| 5.0 | 3.76 | 3.73 | 17 | -1.14 | -1.84 |
| 10.0 | 7.58 | 7.45 | 17 | -0.75 | -2.16 |
| 15.0 | 11.47 | 11.17 | 17 | -0.33 | -2.45 |
| 20.0 | 15.47 | 14.91 | 18 | 0.12 | -2.72 |
| 25.0 | 19.60 | 18.68 | 19 | 0.60 | -2.97 |
| 30.0 | 23.92 | 22.50 | 20 | 1.11 | -3.19 |
| 35.0 | 28.49 | 26.38 | 22 | 1.68 | -3.38 |
Rack travel for 25° on the inner wheel: 31.2 mm. Ackermann measured at 15° outer. Turning radius (outer front wheel, full rack): 3.49 m. Steering arm: 77 mm.
lower-arm rod, rocker; spring 52.5 N/mm, tire 110 N/mm, sprung corner mass 53.6 kg.
| Motion ratio (damper/wheel) | 0.804 |
| Motion ratio change over travel | 5.2 % |
| Wheel rate | 33.9 N/mm |
| Wheel rate with the preload term | 34.5 N/mm |
| Wheel rate at full bump | 34.6 N/mm |
| Ride rate (with tire) | 25.9 N/mm |
| Ride frequency | 3.50 Hz |
| Spring force at ride height | 654 N |
| Spring rate for target freq | 52.5 N/mm |
| Damper stroke used | 48.0 mm |
| Damper stroke left | 9.0 mm |
| Damper compressed at ride height | 50 % stroke |
| Damper room to full extension (droop) | 4.8 mm |
| Damper room to full compression (bump) | 4.2 mm |
| Pushrod angle from horizontal | 43 deg |
| Rocker rotation over travel | 35.0 deg |
| Worst rocker transmission angle | 72 deg |
For 3.5 Hz use about 52 N/mm (300 lbf/in) at this motion ratio.
Quasi-static, + = tension. Change the g levels under loads and tube sizes under members.
| Member | bump | corner outer | corner inner | braking | brake+corner outer | brake+corner inner | pothole | curb strike | bump (deflected) | pothole (deflected) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper rear leg | -147 | +684 | -131 | +611 | +1088 | +170 | -196 | +505 | -155 | -206 |
| Upper front leg | -217 | +633 | -135 | -756 | +34 | -844 | -289 | +474 | -230 | -307 |
| Lower rear leg | +1349 | -704 | +347 | -1340 | -1936 | -556 | +1799 | -620 | +1388 | +1850 |
| Lower front leg | +1411 | -741 | +363 | +3061 | +1318 | +2768 | +1881 | -652 | +1463 | +1951 |
| Tie rod | +82 | -363 | +70 | -267 | -535 | -47 | +109 | -268 | +90 | +120 |
| Pushrod/pullrod | -3012 | -1582 | -291 | -1572 | -1844 | -940 | -4016 | -889 | -2973 | -3964 |
| Damper/spring | -2365 | -1242 | -229 | -1235 | -1448 | -738 | -3154 | -698 | -2344 | -3126 |
Material: 4130 chromoly steel, normalized (yield is lower next to welds), E 205000 MPa, yield 435 MPa, required FOS 2. Buckling FOS = Euler load π²EI/L² ÷ worst compression. Yield FOS = (yield stress × tube area) ÷ worst axial force.
| Member | Tube (mm) | Worst compression | Buckling load | FOS buckling | Worst |force| | Yield force | FOS yield | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper rear leg | 15.88×0.89 | 206 N | 19656 N | 95.4 | 1088 N | 18232 N | 16.8 | OK |
| Upper front leg | 15.88×0.89 | 844 N | 18929 N | 22.4 | 844 N | 18232 N | 21.6 | OK |
| Lower rear leg | 15.88×0.89 | 1936 N | 10602 N | 5.5 | 1936 N | 18232 N | 9.4 | OK |
| Lower front leg | 15.88×0.89 | 741 N | 10768 N | 14.5 | 3061 N | 18232 N | 6.0 | OK |
| Tie rod | 15.88×0.89 | 535 N | 17075 N | 31.9 | 535 N | 18232 N | 34.1 | OK |
| Pushrod/pullrod | 15.88×0.89 | 4016 N | 14408 N | 3.6 | 4016 N | 18232 N | 4.5 | OK |
2 tabs × 3.175 mm, 25.4 mm wide, 12.7 mm from the hole to the end; weld 3 mm leg × 50 mm per tab (members.tab). Bearing and net section against yield; tear-out and weld throat against 0.577 × yield.
| Link end | Worst |force| | FOS bearing | FOS tear-out | FOS net | FOS weld | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper rear leg | 1088 N | 20.2 | 25.6 | 44.3 | 48.9 | OK |
| Upper front leg | 844 N | 26.0 | 33.0 | 57.2 | 63.1 | OK |
| Lower rear leg | 1936 N | 11.3 | 14.4 | 24.9 | 27.5 | OK |
| Lower front leg | 3061 N | 7.2 | 9.1 | 15.8 | 17.4 | OK |
| Tie rod | 535 N | 41.0 | 52.0 | 90.1 | 99.4 | OK |
| Pushrod/pullrod | 4016 N | 5.5 | 6.9 | 12.0 | 13.3 | OK |
| Damper chassis end | 3154 N | 7.0 | 8.8 | 15.3 | 16.9 | OK |
| Rocker pivot | 2984 N | 7.3 | 9.3 | 16.2 | 17.8 | OK |
Each driving case repeated 100,000 times and the bump 10,000 times, from the car at rest, and the swings between opposite cases (left and right turns, braking and accelerating). Tubes: Goodman on the Shigley S-N line (applied = amplitude); welds: IIW stress range against FAT 45 (tube ends) and 36 (tab throats). Required margin 1.5. A screen at the design g levels, not a life prediction.
| Part | Worst cycle | Applied (MPa) | Allowed (MPa) | Margin | Life (cycles) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lower front leg, end weld | braking × 100,000 | 61.8 | 122 | 1.98 | 7.7e+05 | OK |
| Lower rear leg, end weld | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 56.9 | 122 | 2.15 | 9.9e+05 | OK |
| Pushrod/pullrod, end weld | corner outer ↔ corner inner × 100,000 | 30.8 | 122 | 3.97 | 6.2e+06 | OK |
| Upper rear leg, end weld | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 27.1 | 122 | 4.50 | 9.1e+06 | OK |
| Upper front leg, end weld | brake+corner outer ↔ brake+corner inner × 100,000 | 21.0 | 122 | 5.83 | no limit | OK |
| Lower front leg, tube | braking × 100,000 | 30.9 | 316 | 6.22 | no limit | OK |
| Lower rear leg with the pushrod mount (bending) | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 32.0 | 334 | 6.26 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, lower front leg | braking × 100,000 | 12.2 | 98 | 8.00 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, lower rear leg | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 11.2 | 98 | 8.69 | no limit | OK |
| Tie rod, end weld | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 13.4 | 122 | 9.10 | no limit | OK |
| Lower rear leg, tube | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 28.5 | 316 | 11.11 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, pushrod/pullrod | corner outer ↔ corner inner × 100,000 | 6.1 | 98 | 16.06 | no limit | OK |
| Upper rear leg, tube | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 13.6 | 316 | 16.28 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, upper rear leg | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 5.4 | 98 | 18.22 | no limit | OK |
| Pushrod/pullrod, tube | bump (deflected) × 10,000 | 23.5 | 437 | 18.59 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, damper chassis end | corner outer ↔ corner inner × 100,000 | 4.8 | 98 | 20.44 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, rocker pivot | corner outer ↔ corner inner × 100,000 | 4.5 | 98 | 21.61 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, upper front leg | brake+corner outer ↔ brake+corner inner × 100,000 | 4.1 | 98 | 23.60 | no limit | OK |
| Upper front leg, tube | corner outer ↔ corner inner × 100,000 | 9.2 | 316 | 26.43 | no limit | OK |
| Tab weld, tie rod | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 2.7 | 98 | 36.84 | no limit | OK |
| Tie rod, tube | brake+corner outer × 100,000 | 6.7 | 316 | 47.11 | no limit | OK |
| Link pair | Min distance (mm) | Needs | at heave | at rack |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| damper - other side's damper | 61.0 | 60.0 | -30 | -35 |
| tie rod - lower arm leg to pivot X=-230 | 27.5 | 25.7 | -30 | -35 |
| pushrod - tie rod | 55.7 | 20.9 | -30 | -35 |
| tie rod - lower arm leg to pivot X=230 | 84.7 | 25.7 | +30 | +35 |
| pushrod - upper arm leg to pivot X=210 | 109.0 | 25.6 | -30 | +35 |
| pushrod - upper arm leg to pivot X=-230 | 117.7 | 25.6 | -30 | +35 |
| tie rod - upper arm leg to pivot X=-230 | 167.2 | 25.7 | -30 | +35 |
| tie rod - upper arm leg to pivot X=210 | 179.4 | 25.7 | -30 | +35 |
Rim radial margin: 31.7 mm.
Misalignment = how far each rod end or spherical bearing tilts from square to its bolt, searched over the whole travel and rack range. A rod end can spin on its link, so only the link's angle to the plane square to the bolt counts; a spherical bearing (the ball joints) is assumed aligned at ride height. Limits are the catalog's misalignment angles (members.rod_end_misalign / bearing_misalign, or joints.<key>.allow). Past the limit the joint binds: use a high-misalignment rod end or misalignment spacers, or turn the bracket to the better bolt direction.
| Joint | How it is mounted | At ride (°) | Worst (°) | at travel / rack (mm) | Limit (°) | Margin (°) | Better bolt direction | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper wishbone, inboard (pivot X=-230) rod end | bolt on the chassis, along the wishbone pivot axis, bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 0.2 | +30 / -35 | 12.0 | +11.8 | OK | |
| Upper wishbone, inboard (pivot X=210) rod end | bolt on the chassis, along the wishbone pivot axis, bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 0.2 | +30 / -35 | 12.0 | +11.8 | OK | |
| Lower wishbone, inboard (pivot X=-230) rod end | bolt on the chassis, along the wishbone pivot axis, bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 0.1 | +30 / -35 | 12.0 | +11.9 | OK | |
| Lower wishbone, inboard (pivot X=230) rod end | bolt on the chassis, along the wishbone pivot axis, bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 0.1 | +30 / -35 | 12.0 | +11.9 | OK | |
| Upper ball joint spherical bearing | race in the upper wishbone, bolt in the upright along the kingpin axis, aligned at ride height | 0.0 | 6.0 | -30 / +35 | 10.0 | +4.0 | OK | |
| Lower ball joint spherical bearing | race in the lower wishbone, bolt in the upright along the kingpin axis, aligned at ride height | 0.0 | 3.9 | -30 / +35 | 10.0 | +6.1 | OK | |
| Tie rod, inboard rod end | bolt on the chassis, vertical (Z), bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 4.9 | +30 / +35 | 12.0 | +7.1 | OK | [1.00, -0.01, 0.00] (~X): worst 2.2 deg |
| Tie rod, outboard rod end | bolt on the upright, vertical (Z), bracket square to the rod end at ride height | 0.0 | 6.7 | -30 / +35 | 12.0 | +5.3 | OK | [0.09, -0.01, -1.00] (~Z): worst 4.9 deg |
| Pushrod, outboard rod end | bolt on the lower wishbone, along the wishbone pivot axis | 0.2 | 0.2 | +30 / -23 | 12.0 | +11.8 | OK | |
| Pushrod, rocker end rod end | bolt on the rocker, along the rocker axis | 0.0 | 0.0 | -30 / +35 | 12.0 | +12.0 | OK | |
| Damper, rocker end rod end | bolt on the rocker, along the rocker axis | 0.0 | 0.0 | +30 / +35 | 12.0 | +12.0 | OK | |
| Damper, chassis end rod end | bolt on the chassis, along the rocker axis | 0.0 | 0.0 | +30 / +35 | 12.0 | +12.0 | OK |
Searched over 63 positions over the whole travel and rack range.
ISO 8855: X forward, Y left, Z up, mm; origin on the ground under the front axle, on the centerline; this corner shown as the left-hand one
| Point | X | Y | Z |
|---|---|---|---|
| upper_inboard_front | -230.00 | 288.00 | 327.70 |
| upper_inboard_rear | 210.00 | 287.10 | 336.20 |
| lower_inboard_front | -230.00 | 167.50 | 143.50 |
| lower_inboard_rear | 230.00 | 166.10 | 140.20 |
| upper_outboard | -15.00 | 562.00 | 345.00 |
| lower_outboard | 5.00 | 580.00 | 135.00 |
| trackrod_inboard | -80.00 | 193.00 | 170.80 |
| trackrod_outboard | -75.00 | 567.10 | 168.30 |
| contact_patch | 0.00 | 610.00 | 0.00 |
Change in each metric. Darker = bigger effect relative to that column's largest. Pick the hardpoint that moves what you want, then move only that one.
| Coordinate | Δ Roll center height | Δ Camber gain | Δ Roll camber (outer, to ground) | Δ Roll center lateral shift | Δ Bump steer (+ = in) | Δ Toe curvature (avg of ends, + = in) | Δ Anti-dive | Δ Caster | Δ KPI | Δ Scrub radius | Δ Mechanical trail | Δ Track change | Δ Motion ratio (damper/wheel) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
upper_inboard_front.x | +0.07 | +0.001 | -0.001 | +0.00 | +0.000 | +0.000 | +0.05 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.01 | -0.000 |
upper_inboard_front.y | +0.17 | +0.003 | -0.001 | +2.36 | +0.002 | +0.002 | +0.11 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.02 | -0.000 |
upper_inboard_front.z | -3.53 | -0.065 | +0.027 | +0.17 | -0.025 | -0.007 | -2.38 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.37 | +0.001 |
upper_inboard_rear.x | +0.07 | +0.001 | -0.001 | +0.01 | +0.001 | -0.000 | -0.05 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.01 | -0.000 |
upper_inboard_rear.y | +0.16 | +0.003 | -0.001 | +2.31 | +0.001 | +0.002 | -0.12 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.02 | -0.000 |
upper_inboard_rear.z | -3.40 | -0.063 | +0.026 | -0.39 | -0.029 | +0.006 | +2.39 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.35 | +0.001 |
lower_inboard_front.x | +0.04 | +0.000 | -0.000 | -0.01 | -0.001 | +0.000 | +0.04 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.000 |
lower_inboard_front.y | +0.10 | +0.001 | -0.000 | -2.62 | -0.002 | +0.004 | +0.10 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.01 | -0.001 |
lower_inboard_front.z | +5.85 | +0.031 | -0.013 | -0.38 | -0.099 | +0.007 | +5.89 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.50 | -0.006 |
lower_inboard_rear.x | +0.04 | +0.000 | -0.000 | -0.01 | -0.001 | -0.000 | -0.04 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.000 |
lower_inboard_rear.y | +0.10 | +0.001 | -0.000 | -2.72 | -0.001 | +0.004 | -0.10 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.01 | -0.000 |
lower_inboard_rear.z | +6.07 | +0.033 | -0.014 | +0.10 | -0.093 | -0.005 | -5.89 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.53 | -0.006 |
upper_outboard.x | -0.12 | -0.002 | +0.001 | +0.17 | -0.001 | +0.000 | +0.00 | -1.35 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -3.21 | -0.01 | +0.000 |
upper_outboard.y | -0.30 | -0.005 | +0.002 | -3.78 | -0.002 | -0.003 | +0.01 | +0.00 | -1.36 | +3.21 | +0.00 | -0.03 | +0.000 |
upper_outboard.z | +6.16 | +0.114 | -0.048 | -1.31 | +0.048 | -0.001 | -0.14 | -0.13 | -0.11 | +0.27 | -0.30 | +0.64 | -0.002 |
lower_outboard.x | -0.08 | -0.000 | +0.000 | -0.19 | +0.001 | +0.001 | +0.00 | +1.35 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +8.21 | -0.00 | +0.000 |
lower_outboard.y | -0.17 | -0.001 | +0.000 | +4.14 | +0.003 | -0.006 | +0.01 | +0.00 | +1.35 | -8.21 | +0.00 | -0.02 | -0.008 |
lower_outboard.z | -10.70 | -0.057 | +0.024 | +7.89 | +0.172 | -0.010 | +0.35 | +0.13 | +0.12 | -0.72 | +0.80 | -0.93 | +0.001 |
trackrod_inboard.x | +0.00 | +0.000 | -0.000 | +0.00 | +0.001 | -0.000 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.000 |
trackrod_inboard.y | +0.00 | +0.000 | -0.000 | +0.00 | +0.002 | -0.012 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.000 |
trackrod_inboard.z | +0.00 | +0.023 | -0.010 | +0.07 | +0.249 | -0.003 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.18 | -0.000 |
trackrod_outboard.x | +0.00 | -0.000 | +0.000 | -0.00 | -0.000 | -0.001 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.00 | +0.000 |
trackrod_outboard.y | +0.00 | -0.000 | +0.000 | -0.00 | -0.002 | +0.009 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.00 | +0.000 |
trackrod_outboard.z | +0.00 | -0.021 | +0.009 | -0.07 | -0.222 | +0.012 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.16 | +0.000 |
lower_inboard_front+lower_inboard_rear.z | +11.91 | +0.064 | -0.027 | -0.17 | -0.193 | +0.002 | -0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +1.04 | -0.012 |
upper_inboard_front+upper_inboard_rear.z | -6.94 | -0.129 | +0.054 | -0.28 | -0.054 | -0.000 | +0.02 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | -0.72 | +0.002 |
lower_inboard_front+lower_inboard_rear.y | +0.20 | +0.001 | -0.000 | -5.36 | -0.003 | +0.008 | -0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.02 | -0.001 |
upper_inboard_front+upper_inboard_rear.y | +0.34 | +0.006 | -0.003 | +4.69 | +0.003 | +0.004 | -0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.04 | -0.000 |
trackrod_inboard+trackrod_outboard.z | +0.00 | +0.003 | -0.001 | +0.01 | +0.029 | +0.009 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.00 | +0.02 | -0.000 |
Red = metric decreases, blue = increases.
| Metric | Meaning / how to move it |
|---|---|
| Static camber | Wheel lean at ride height. Negative = top leans in. Sets static grip; tune with static camber shims. |
| Camber gain | How much camber changes per inch of bump. Controlled by front-view swing arm (FVSA): longer FVSA = less gain. |
| Roll camber (outer, to ground) | Camber change of the outer wheel relative to the GROUND per degree of body roll. 1.0 = wheel leans with the body (no compensation, e.g. equal parallel arms); 0 = wheel stays at static camber. More camber gain lowers it. |
| Caster | Kingpin tilt seen from the side. More caster = more self-centring and camber gain while steering, heavier steering. |
| KPI | Kingpin inclination seen from the front. Drives scrub radius and steering-induced camber/jacking. |
| Scrub radius | Distance from the steering axis ground point to the contact patch (+ = axis meets ground inboard). Large = kickback and heavy steering. |
| Mechanical trail | Distance from the steering axis ground point to the contact patch along X. Gives self-centring torque. |
| Roll center height | Height of the roll center above ground. Higher = more load transfer through links, less body roll; big swings hurt consistency. |
| Roll center lateral shift | How far the roll center moves sideways per degree of roll. Large values make the car's balance change through a corner. |
| Bump steer (+ = in) | Toe change per inch of bump (+ = toe-in). Should be near 0. Fixed with tie-rod inboard/outboard heights. |
| Track change | Sideways contact-patch movement over the sweep. Big = tire scrub and unpredictable grip. |
| Anti-dive | Share of braking weight transfer taken through the links at the front. 0 = all through springs. |
| Ackermann | How closely the steering matches the true-turning-geometry angle split. 0 = parallel steer, 100 = full Ackermann. |
| Turning radius (outer front wheel) | Path radius of the outer front wheel at full rack travel (kinematic, no slip). Must fit the tightest hairpin. |
| Motion ratio (damper/wheel) | Damper travel per unit wheel travel at ride height. Wheel rate = spring rate x MR^2. |
| Ride frequency | Natural frequency of the sprung corner on its springs and tire. Sets how stiff the car feels; FSAE cars often run 2.5-4.5 Hz. |
| Static toe (+ = in) | Static toe. + = toe-in. Front usually slight toe-out, rear slight toe-in. |
| Front-view swing arm | Front-view swing arm length. Sets camber gain and where the roll center moves in heave. |
| Roll steer (outer, + = in) | Toe change of the outer wheel per degree of roll (+ = toe-in). Mostly bump steer seen through roll. |
| Steering arm length | Distance from the tie-rod outer joint to the steering axis. Short arm = high rack force and sensitive steering. |
| Min link clearance | Smallest center-line distance between moving links (tie rod, pushrod, wishbone legs) over heave and steer. |
loads.